Abnormal psychology

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY- a harmful dysfunction in which behavior is judged by ——>>

U- unjustifiable 

M- maladaptive 

A- atypical 

D- disturbing 

DSM V: diagnostic statistical manual of mental disorders. 

-will classify disorders and describe the symptoms 

-DSM will not explain the causes or possible cures 

DISORDERS 

• ANXIETY

- a group of conditions where the primary symptoms are anxiety or defenses against anxiety. 

- the patent fears something awful will happen to them 

- they are in a state or intense apprehension, uneasiness, or fear. 

>phobias

     - a person experiences sudden episodes of intense dread 

>panic disorder

    - an anxiety disorder marked by a minutes long episode of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking and other frightening sensations. 

>generalized anxiety disorder

    - a person is continuously tense, apprehensive and ima state of automatic nervous system arousal 

    - patient is constantly tense and oversensitive and can’t concentrate and suffers insomnia. 

>OCD (obsessive compulsive disorder)

    - persisted unwanted thoughts (obsessions) cause someone to feel the need (compulsion) to engage in a particular action 

    - obsession about dirt and germs may lead to compulsive hand washing. 

>PTSD

    - flashbacks or nightmares following a persons involvement in or observation of an extremely stressful event 

    - memories of the even cause anxiety 

•SOMATOFORM DISORDERS

- occur when a person manifests a psychological problem through a physical symptom 

- two types 

>hypochondriasis

     - has frequent physical complaints for which medical doctors are unable to locate the cause

>CONVERSIÓN DISORDER 

- report the existence of severe physical problems with no biological reason 

- like blindness or paralysis 

>Dissociative disorders

- involve a disruption in the conscious process 

>> psychogenic amnesia: a person cannot remember things with no physiological basis for the disruption or memory 
    - retrograde amnesia 
    - NOT organic amnesia 
    - organic amnesia can be retrograde or anterograde

>> dissociative fugue: people with psychogenic amnesia that find themselves in an unfamiliar environment. 

>> dissociative identity disorder: multiple personality disorder 
    - a person has several rather than one integrated personality 
    - people with D.I.D. commonly have a history of childhood abuse or trauma 

>MOOD DISORDERS 
- experience extreme or inappropriate emotion 

>> major depression: unhappy for at least two weeks with no apparent cause 
    - depression is the common cold or psychological disorders. 

>> SEASONAL AFFECTIVE DISORDER
    - experience depression during the winter months 
    - based not on temperature but amount of sunlight 
    - treated with light temperature 

>> BIPOLAR DISORDER: involves periods of depression and manic episodes 
    - formally maniac depression 
    - manic episodes involve feelings of high energy 
    - engage in risky behavior during the manic episode


>> SCHIZOPHRENIA: 
    - about 1 in every 100 people are diagnosed 

- disorganized thinking: fragmented and bizarre and distorted with false beliefs. Comes from a breakdown in selective attention 
- disturbed perceptions: hallucinations which are sensory experiences without sensory stimulation 
- inappropriate emotions and actions: laugh at inappropriate times, flat affect, senseless, compulsive acts, catatonia- motionless waxy flexibility. 
- delusions of persecution and delusions of grandeur 


Positive vs negative symptoms- 

Positive- presence of inappropriate symptoms 
Negative- absence of appropriate ones 

Types of schizophrenia: 

Paranoid schizophrenia
• preoccupation with delusions or hallucinations 
• somebody is out to get me 

Disorganized schizophrenia 
• disorganized speech or behavior, or flat or inappropriate emotion 

Catatonic schizophrenia 
• parrot like repeating of another’s speech and movements

Undifferentiated schizophrenia 
• many and varied symptoms 

>PERSONALITY DISORDERS: psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning 

>> paranoid personality disorder: distrust of others and so stand suspicion that people have sinister  motives 

>> antisocial personality disorder: lack of conscience. They tend to lie and steal. Believe their victims are weak and deserving to be taking advance over. 

>> borderline personality disorder: mood instability and poor self image. Prone to constant mood swings and bouts of anger. 

>> histrionic personality disorder: constant attention seekers. Center of attention 

>> narcissistic personality disorder: self centeredness-> exaggerate

>> schizoid personality disorder: avoid relationships and do not show much emotion. Prefer to be alone 

>> schizotypal personality disorder: need for social isolation, odd behavior and thinking, and often unconventional beliefs suck as being convinced of having extra sensory abilities. This is a mild form of schizophrenia. 

>> avoidant personality disorder: pervasive pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, extreme sensitivity to negative evaluations. Consider themselves socially inept or personally unappealing, and avoid social interaction for fear of being ridiculed or humiliated. 

>> dependent personality disorder: pervasive psychological dependence on other people. Has difficulty making regular decisions without an excessive amount of advice and reassurance others 

>> obsessive compulsive personality disorder: General psychological inflexibility, rigid conformity to rules and procedures, perfectionism, and excessive orderliness 

>> 

Motivation and emotion

• Motivation: a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior 

• Instinct Theory: we are motivated by our inborn automated behaviors 
• Drive-Reduction Theory: the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need 
• we are not only pushed by our needs, but pulled by our incentives: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior 

Hunger

• hunger is both physiological and psychological 

Biological Basis of Hunger

• hunger does NOT come from our stomach 
• hunger comes from our brain; the hypothalamus 

Hypothalamus 

• Lateral Hypothalamus: when stimulated it makes you hungry 
• Ventromedial Hypothalamus: when stimulated you feel full 

Eating Disorders 

• Bulimia Nervosa: characterized by binging (eating large amounts of food) and purging (getting rid of the food) 
• Anorexia Nervosa: starve themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight
• see themselves as fat 
• vast majority are women

Achievement Motivation 

• Intrinsic Motivators: rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction 
• Extrinsic Motivators: reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades or money or etc.) 
• work great in the short run 

Management Theories

• Theory X: manager believes that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment
• think employees are extrinsically motivated 
• only interested in Maslow's lower needs 
• Theory Y: managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive 
• interested in Maslow's higher needs

When Motives Conflict 

• approach-approach conflict 
• avoidance-avoidance conflict 
• approach-avoidance conflict 
• multiple approach-avoidance conflicts 

Approach-Approach Conflict 

• when one must choose between two desirable or attractive goals

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict 

• it refers to making a decision between two equally undesirable choices 

When motives conflict;

•Approach- approach conflict

•Avoidance- avoidance conflict

•Approach avoidance conflict
-occurs when there is one goal or event that has both positive and negative effects. 

•Multiple approach- avoidance conflicts
-refers to when an individual is frequently faced with having to chose between two or more goals, each of which have an attractive and repulsive aspect. 

Emotion:

James Lange theory of emotion: 

• Experience of emotion is awareness of physiological 

responses to emotion arousing stimuli. 

• We feel emotion because of biological changes caused by stress.

• The body changes and our mind recognizes the feeling. 

Cannon Bard theory of emotion: 

• emotion arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger..

          - physiological responses 

          - subjective experience of emotion

Schacter’s two factor theory of emotion 

• to experience emotion one must 

          -be physically aroused 

          - cognitively label the arousal 

Emotion- lie detectors 

POLYGRAPH- 

• machine commonly used in attempts to detect lies 

• measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion 

     - perspiration 

     - cardiovascular 

     - breathing changes 

Catharsis- 

• Emotional release 

• Hypothesis...

       -releasing aggressive energy (through action or fantasy)     relieves aggressive urges 

Feel good, do good phenomenon-

• people’s tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood. 

Adaptation- level phenomenon- 

• tendency to form judgements relative to a neutral level

- brightness of lights, loudness of sound, level of income 

- defined by our prior experience

Relative deprivation- 

• perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself 

Social Psychology 

* Social psychology is the study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. *

Social thinking 

•attribution theory:

     - the idea that we give a casual explanation for someone’s behavior. 

     - we credit that behavior either to the situation. 

     - to the persons disposition. 

•fundamental attribution error:

     - the tendency to underestimate the impact of a situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition. 

•attitude:

     - a belief of feeling that predisposes one to respond ima particular way to something. 

    

•foot in the door phenomenon:

     - the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. 

•door in the face phenomenon:

     - the tendency for people tank say no to a huge request, to comply with a smaller one. 

[cognitive dissonance theory]

     - we do not like when we have either conflicting attitudes or when our attitudes don’t match our actions. 

     - when they clash, we will change our attitude to create balance. 

Social influence 

Conformity- adjusting ones behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Conditions that’s strengthen conformity; 

- one is made to feel incompetent 

- the group must be at least 3 people 

- the group has to be unanimous

- one admires the groups status 

- one had made no prior commitment 

- the person is observed 

Reasons for conforming 

Normative social influence;

•influence resulting from a persons desire to gain approval or avoid disappointment

Informational social influence;

•influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.

OBEDIENCE

SOCIAL FACILITATION 

• improves performance of tasks in the prescience of others. 

• occurs with simple or well learned tasks.

• not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered. 

Yerkes- Dodson law

• there is an optimal level of arousal for the best performance or any task...

    - easy tasks— relatively high 

    - difficult tasks— low arousal  

    - other tasks— moderate level 

Social loafing;

• the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when polling efforts toward a common goal than if they were individually accountable. 

DEINDIVIDUATION- the loss of self awareness and self restraint occurring in group situations that frosted arousal and anonymity.  

Group polarization- concept that a groups attitude is one of extremes and rarely moderate.




Group think;
• the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides common sense.

Self fulfilling prophecies;
• occurs when one persons belief about other leads to one to act in ways that induce the other appear to confirm the belief. 










SOCIAL RELATIONS


Prejudice;
- an unjustifiable attitude towards a group of people
- usually involves stereotype beliefs

Social inequalities;
- in group: “us” people Witt whom one shares a common identity 

SCAPEGOAT THEORY- 
• the theory that prejudice provides an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame 


aggression;
• any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

Conflict;
• a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals or ideas 


Pasión love ❤️- an aroused state of intense positive absorption of another. 

Compassionate love 💕- the deep affectionate attachment we feel for close with whom our lives are intertwined. 



Altruism:
• unselfish regard for the welfare of others 
•Kitty Genovese 
• Bystander effect (bystanders less willing to help if there are other bystanders around) 

Learning (new chapter)

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.  

Associative learning- learning that certain events occur together.

Classical conditioning- the type of leaning in which a response is naturally elicited by one stimulus begins to be elicited by a different formally neutral stimulus.
Pavlov and Watson
UCS UCR CS CR
-An involuntary behavior is determined by what preceded it. (Pavlov)
_ unconditioned stimulus (US) stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
_ unconditioned response (UR) the I learned, naturally occurring response to the UCS
* neutral stimulus- something by itself that doesn’t not elicit a response
Conditioned stimulus- the originally neutral stimulus that after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a response
Conditioned response- the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

The UR and CR are always the same
- the NS and the CS are always the same. The NS becomes the CS through learning.

                                     The five principles of classical conditioning
• acquisition - we know leaning exists because the CS is linked to the UCS
   - contiguity : the CS should come before the UCS. They should be very close together in timing.
   - contingency : learning is better when the UCS and CS occur together frequently.
   - novelty : learning is better when the CS is new or unique

• extinction - acquisition does not last forever. The moment the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have extinction.
   - reconditioning : the quick relearning of a CR after extinction.

• spontaneous recovery - Sometimes after extinction, the CR still randomly appears after the CS is presented.

• generalization - Something is so similar to the CS that you automatically get a CR

• discrimination - something so different to the CS you don’t get a CR
John Watson was responsible for little Albert




Operant conditioning- the type of learning in which behaviors are emitted to earn rewards or avoid punishment. The learn Inter is not passive and everything is based on consequence.
B.F. skinner
Reinforcement and punishment
Behavior is determined by anticipation of what follows it. It is VOLUNTARY
dog sits in anticipation of getting a treat.
Operant conditioning also used acquisition,  discrimination, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and extinction.

- type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment.
Edward L. Thorndike -
Law of effect: Thorndike’s principle that responses are “stamped in” by rewards and “stamped out” by punishments. 
SHAPING- when you reinforce small steps on the way to the desired behavior.

REINFORCEMENT- any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Positive- Strengthens a response by adding a stimulus after a response

Negative- removes something unpleasant that was already in the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again. (Think avoiding and escaping)

PUNISHMENT:  an event that decreases the behavior that it follows. - meant to decrease a behavior 

Positive punishment- addition of something unpleasant. 

Negative punishment- the removal of something unpleasant 

- punishment works best when it is immediately done after behavior and if it is harsh

Type of reinforcers: 
Primary- am innately reinforcing stimulus
Secondary- a stimulus that gains its reinforcement power through its association with a primary reinforcer.


Social cognitive learning theory- Type of learning in which behaviors are learned by observing a model.
Albert bandura
Modeling and vicarious learning

Token economy;
• every time a desired behavior is performed a token is given.
• they can trade tokens in for a variety or prizes (reinforcements).
• used in homes, prisons, mental institutions, and schools.
CONTINUOUS VS PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT

Continuous:
-reinforce the behavior every time the behavior is exhibited
- usually some when the subject is first learning to make the association

Partial:
- reinforce the behavior only some of the times it is exhibited
- acquisition comes more slowly
- but it is more resistant to extinction
- four types of partial reinforcement schedules

SCHEDULES—-
Fixed ratio: provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses

Variable ratio: provides a reinforcement after a random number of responses.
- very hard to get acquisition but also resistant to extinction.

Interval schedules- 

Fixed interval: requires a set amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.

Variable interval: requires a random amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.
- very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction

Observational learning-
>Albert bandida and his BoBo doll
> we learn through meddling behavior from others
> observations learning + operant conditioning = social learning theory

Latent learning-
< Edward Toleman
< latent means hidden
< sometimes learning is not immediate
< (rat experiment)

Insight learning-
~ some animals learn through the “ah ha” experience



MEMORY- the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

The memory process:
• Encoding- the processing of information into the memory system 
• Storage- the retention of encoded material over time 
• Retrieval- the process of getting the information out of memory storage 

Recall VS Recognition 

Recall- you must retrieve the information from your memory 
Recognition- you must identify the target from possible targets 

Flashbulb memory- a clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or event. 

TYPES OF MEMORY 
**Sensory
- the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system 
- stores just for an instant, and most gets unprocessed 

**Short term
- memory that holds a few items briefly 
- seven digits (+- 2) 
- the information will be stored into long term or forgotten 

**Long term
- the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system 



            #encoding: getting the information in our heads 

Automatic processing- unconscious encoding of incidental information. 
• you encode space, time and word meaning without effort 
• things become automatic with practice 

Effort-full processing- encoding that requires attention and conscious effort 
• reversal is the most common effortful processing technique 
• through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic 

THINGS TO REMEMBER ABOUT ENCODING 

1. The next in-line effect: we seldom remember what the person has just said or done if we are next 
2. Information minutes before sleep is seldom remembered; in the hour before sleep; well remembered. 
3. Taped info played while asleep is registered by ears but we do not remember it 
**working memory (modern day STM)- another way of describing the use of short term memory is called working memory 

** working memory has 3 parts- 
1. Audio 
2. Visual 
3. Integration of audio and visual (controls where your attention lies) 

SPACING EFFECT- 
• we encode better when we study or practice over time 
• DONT CRAM 

SERIAL POSITIONING EFFECT
• our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list 


SEMANTIC ENCODING 
• the encoding of meaning, like meaning of words 

ACOUSTIC ENCODING 
• the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words 

VISUAL ENCODING
• the encoding of picture images 

Tricks to encode- use mental pictures or mnemonic devices use imagery. Like my “peg word” system or... 

Chunking- 
• organizing items into familiar, manageable units 
• often occurs automatically 

States of Consciousness (unit3)

WHAT IS CONSCIOUSNESSES?

Conscious is our awareness of ourselves and our surroundings. 

Daydreams (there is a difference between daydreaming and fantasies): 

- we daydream to help prepare us for future events. 

- they can help us with our social development 

- can substitute for impulsive behaviors 

BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS

- Annual cycle; seasonal variations (bears hibernation, seasonal affective disorder) 

24 hour cycle- menstrual 

28 day cycle- our circadian 

90 minute cycle- sleep cycle 

Circadian rhythm- our 24 hour biological clock. Our body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day. It is best to take a test or study during your circadian peaks. 

SLEEP STAGES:
- 5 stages of sleep
- Takes about 90-100 minutes to pass through the 5 stages
- Brain waves change according to the sleep stage you’re in
- First four stages= NREM sleep
- The fifth stage is called REM sleep

1. Stage 1- falling in and out of sleep. Takes up 1-5 minutes. Is approximately 2-5% of a normal night sleep. Eyes begun to roll slightly, consists mostly of theta waves (Hugh amplitude, low  frequency (slow)). Brief periods of alpha waves (similar to those present while awake). Hallucinating and feelings of falling. 
2. Stage 2- Baseline of sleep. 90 minute cycle. Occupies approximately 45-60% of sleep. 
3. Stage 3 and 4- “delta” sleep or slow wave. May last 15-30 minutes. It’s called slow sleep because brain activity slows down dramatically from theta Ruth un of stage 2. Amplitude of waves increases dramatically. Delta is the DEEPEST! Delta sleep is a sleep deprived persons brain craves the fist and foremost. In children, delta sleep can occupy 40% of all sleep time. Makes children “unawakable” or dead sleep. 
4. Stage 5- REM sleep. Rapid eye movement. Compose 20-25% of a normal nights sleep. Breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken. Vivid dreams can occur. From REM you go back to stage 2. 

REM- body is paralyzed. Genitals become aroused. Erections and clitoral enforcements. “Morning erections” are from the final REM stage. A typical 25 year old man has an erection during half of his sleep. A 65 year old- one quarter.

SLEEP DISORDERS
1. Insomnia: reoccurring problems in falling asleep or staying asleep. Not your once in a while. It is not defined by the number of hours you sleep every night.
2. Narcolepsy: uncontrollable sleep attacks. Lapses directly into REM sleep (times of stress and joy, rapid eye movement)
3. Sleep apnea: temporary cessation’s of breathing durning sleep and consequent momentary reawakening. (You stop breathing in the middle of sleep)
3. Night terrors: Hugh arousal and an appearance of being terrified. Occur in stage 4, not REM and are not often remembered.
4. Sleepwalking: affecting 10% of all humans at least once in their life. Sleep walking often occurs during deep non-REM sleep (stage 3 or 4) early in the night.

Dreams: sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping persons mind.
Manifest content- the remembered storyline of a dream
Latent content- underlying meaning of a dream.

DRUGS
•Drug tolerance- the diminishing effect with regular dose of the same dose.
                Psychological vs. physical dependence.
•Drugs are either agonists(neurons fire)  or antagonists (neurons don’t fire), reuptake inhibitors.
•If a drug is used often, a tolerance is created for the drug. You need more to feel the same effect. If you stop using a drug you can develop withdrawal symptoms.

Psychoactive drugs-

1. Depressants: slow down body function 
2. Stimulants: arouse body functions 
3. Hallucinogens: distort perceptions or evoke sensation without sensory input  

*Alcohol- slows down sympathetic nervous system. Districts memory processing. Reduces self awareness. Involved up to 60% of all drives. The worst drug from a macro perspective out there. 

*Depressants- tranquilizers. Taken to sleep (reduce REM sleep) taken with other drugs- you can get a synergistic effect.

*Opiates- has depressive and hallucinogenic qualities. Agonists for endorphins. Derived from a poppy plant. Morphine, heroine, methadone and codeine. All these drugs cross the placental barrier....teratogens. 

*Stimulants- speed up body processes. More powerful ones (like cocaine) give people feelings of invincibility. Ex. Amphetamines (speed), cocaine and crack 

*Hallucinogens- LSD (acid) hallucinogens cause distorted perceptions of the environment. Small amounts change how the brain functions. Brain cells fire at random, causing confusion and distorted perception of reality. 

*Marijuana; THC IS DIFFICULT TO CLASSIFY. Can amplify senses. 

Neural and hormonal systems (unit 2)

Neuron- 

• It all starts with the neuron. 

1. Cell body: the cells life-support center (nucleus) (also called soma) 
2. Dendrites: receive messages from other cells 
3. Axon: passed messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands 
4. Neural impulse: electrical signal traveling down the axon 
5. Myelin sheath: covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulse 
6. Terminal branches or axon 
7. NEURONS DO NOT TOUCH EACH OTHER THE SPACE IN BETWEEN IS CALLED THE SYNAPSE  

         

How a neutron fires- it is an electrochemical process 

• Electrical inside the neuron
• Chemical outside of the neuron (in the synapse in the form of a neurotransmitter) 
• The firing is a call to action potential 

All or none response- 

- the idea that either the neuron fires or does not- no part way firing. Like a gun! 

Steps of action potential 

• Dendrites encorve neurotransmitters from another neuron across the synapses 
• Reached its threshold, then fires based on the all or none response 
• Opens a portal in the axon and lets positive ions (sodium) which mix with negative ions (potassium) that is already inside the axon (this neurons at rest have slightly negative charge.
• Mixing of + and - ions causes an electrical charge that opens up the next portal (letting in more k) while closing the original portal 
• Process continues down axon to the axon terminal 
• Terminal neurons turns electrical charge into chemical (neurotransmitter) and shoots message to the next neuron across the synapse 

TYPES OF NEURONS

Sensory Neurons- take information from the senses to the brain. (Senses of touch and feel send messages to neurons. Any senses apply?)

Inter Neurons- take messages from sensory neurons to other parts of the brain or to motor neurons.

Motor Neuron (efferent neuron)- take information from the brain, to the rest of the body.

DRUGS CAN BE-

1. Agonists- make neurons fire.
2. Antagonismo- stops neurons from firing
3. Reputarle inhibitors- block neurotransmitters from entering the neuron. 

NERVOUS SYSTEM 

• Central nervous system: the brain and spinal cord (CNS)
• Peripheral nervous system: all nerves that are not encased in bone (everything besides the cns) everything but the spinal chord (PNS). Divided into two categories, somatic and autonomic.

Somatic - uses motor (efferent neurons). Controls voluntary muscle movements. 

Autonomic - controls the automatic functions of the body. Divided into two categories. The sympathetic and the parasympathetic. 

Sympathetic nervous system: 

• Fight or flight response 
• Automatically accelerates heart rate, breathing, dilated pupils, slows down digestion

Parasympathetic nervous system: 

• Automatically slows the body down after a stressful event. 
• Heart rate and breathing slow down, pupils constrict and digestion spreads up. 

REFLEXES- sensory neurons 

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM- a system of glands that secrete hormones. Similar to nervous system, except hormones work a lot slower than neurotransmitters. 

THE BRAIN- 6 ways we study the brain

-Accidents: Phineas Gage story.... personality changed after accident. Told us that different part of

the brain control different aspects of who we are.

-Lesions: removal or destruction of some part of the brain. (Removing some part of the brain to study) frontal lobotomy.

-EEG: detects brain waves through their electrical output. Used paint in sleep research.

-CAT scan: 3D X-ray of the brain. Good for tumor locating but tell us nothing about function.

-PET scan: measures how much of a chemical the brain is using (usually glucose consumption)

-MRI: more detailed picture of the brain using magnetic field to knock electrons off axis. Takes many still pictures and turns images into a movie like a production.
-Functional MRI: combination of MRI and PET scan.

PARTS OF THE BRAIN. 🧠

1. Hind- controls basic biological structures.
2. Medulla- located above spinal chord. It is involved in the control of  breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. 
3. Pons- located above the medulla conecta the hind brain, mid brain and forebrain. It is involved in facial expressions (emotion) 
4. Cerebellum- bottom tear of the brain. Known as the little brain. Coordinated fine muscle movements.
5. Mid brain- coordinates simple movements with sensory information. The most important structure in the mid brain is the reticular formation. (Controls arousal and the ability to focus our attention) 
6. Fore brain- makes us human. Largest part of the brain. Made up of the thalamus, the limbic system, and the cerebral cortex. 
7. Thalamus- switchboard of the brain. Receives sensory signals from the spinal chord and sends them to other parts of the forebrain. Every sense except small 👃
8. Limbic system - hypothalamus, pituitary gland, amygdala, and hippocampus. 
9. hypothalamus: the most important structure of the brain. Controls and regulates body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system.
10. Amygdala- involved in how we process memory. And deals with emotions.
11. hippocampus- involved in the processing and storage of memories.

Cerebral cortex: Madden up of densely packed neurons we call “gray matter”

Glial cells: support brain cells

-Wrinkles are called fissures



HEMISPHERES- two hemispheres.

- colateral control, right controls left and left controls right

Right hemisphere ppl- special and creative tasks
Left hemisphere ppl- logic and sequential tasks




THE FOUR LOBES-

1. Frontal lobes: thought and emotional control. Contains motor cortex. And sends signals to tour body controlling muscle movement. Contains Broca’s area which is responsible for controlling muscles that produce speech. Damage to Broca’s area is called Broca’s aphasia- unable to make movements to talk. 
2. Parietal lobe- contains the sensory cortex which receives incoming touch sensations from rest of the body most of the parietal lobe is made up of association areas. Association area- any area not associated with receiving sensory information or coordinating muscle movements. 
3. Occipital lobes: deals with vision. Contains visual cortex which interprets messages from our eyes into images we can understand. 
4. Temporal lobe: deals with hearing. Sound processed through the ears! Interpreted in the auditory cortex. Contains Wernikie’ s area- interprets written and spoken speech. Wernickies aphasia- unable to understand language. The syntax and grammar is jumbled.

Brain plasticity- the idea that the brain, when damaged, will attempt to find new ways to reroute 

messages. Children’s brains are more plastic than adults. 

Corpus Callosum- thick bundle of nerves.