Learning (new chapter)

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.  

Associative learning- learning that certain events occur together.

Classical conditioning- the type of leaning in which a response is naturally elicited by one stimulus begins to be elicited by a different formally neutral stimulus.
Pavlov and Watson
UCS UCR CS CR
-An involuntary behavior is determined by what preceded it. (Pavlov)
_ unconditioned stimulus (US) stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
_ unconditioned response (UR) the I learned, naturally occurring response to the UCS
* neutral stimulus- something by itself that doesn’t not elicit a response
Conditioned stimulus- the originally neutral stimulus that after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a response
Conditioned response- the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

The UR and CR are always the same
- the NS and the CS are always the same. The NS becomes the CS through learning.

                                     The five principles of classical conditioning
• acquisition - we know leaning exists because the CS is linked to the UCS
   - contiguity : the CS should come before the UCS. They should be very close together in timing.
   - contingency : learning is better when the UCS and CS occur together frequently.
   - novelty : learning is better when the CS is new or unique

• extinction - acquisition does not last forever. The moment the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have extinction.
   - reconditioning : the quick relearning of a CR after extinction.

• spontaneous recovery - Sometimes after extinction, the CR still randomly appears after the CS is presented.

• generalization - Something is so similar to the CS that you automatically get a CR

• discrimination - something so different to the CS you don’t get a CR
John Watson was responsible for little Albert




Operant conditioning- the type of learning in which behaviors are emitted to earn rewards or avoid punishment. The learn Inter is not passive and everything is based on consequence.
B.F. skinner
Reinforcement and punishment
Behavior is determined by anticipation of what follows it. It is VOLUNTARY
dog sits in anticipation of getting a treat.
Operant conditioning also used acquisition,  discrimination, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and extinction.

- type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment.
Edward L. Thorndike -
Law of effect: Thorndike’s principle that responses are “stamped in” by rewards and “stamped out” by punishments. 
SHAPING- when you reinforce small steps on the way to the desired behavior.

REINFORCEMENT- any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Positive- Strengthens a response by adding a stimulus after a response

Negative- removes something unpleasant that was already in the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again. (Think avoiding and escaping)

PUNISHMENT:  an event that decreases the behavior that it follows. - meant to decrease a behavior 

Positive punishment- addition of something unpleasant. 

Negative punishment- the removal of something unpleasant 

- punishment works best when it is immediately done after behavior and if it is harsh

Type of reinforcers: 
Primary- am innately reinforcing stimulus
Secondary- a stimulus that gains its reinforcement power through its association with a primary reinforcer.


Social cognitive learning theory- Type of learning in which behaviors are learned by observing a model.
Albert bandura
Modeling and vicarious learning

Token economy;
• every time a desired behavior is performed a token is given.
• they can trade tokens in for a variety or prizes (reinforcements).
• used in homes, prisons, mental institutions, and schools.
CONTINUOUS VS PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT

Continuous:
-reinforce the behavior every time the behavior is exhibited
- usually some when the subject is first learning to make the association

Partial:
- reinforce the behavior only some of the times it is exhibited
- acquisition comes more slowly
- but it is more resistant to extinction
- four types of partial reinforcement schedules

SCHEDULES—-
Fixed ratio: provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses

Variable ratio: provides a reinforcement after a random number of responses.
- very hard to get acquisition but also resistant to extinction.

Interval schedules- 

Fixed interval: requires a set amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.

Variable interval: requires a random amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.
- very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction

Observational learning-
>Albert bandida and his BoBo doll
> we learn through meddling behavior from others
> observations learning + operant conditioning = social learning theory

Latent learning-
< Edward Toleman
< latent means hidden
< sometimes learning is not immediate
< (rat experiment)

Insight learning-
~ some animals learn through the “ah ha” experience



MEMORY- the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

The memory process:
• Encoding- the processing of information into the memory system 
• Storage- the retention of encoded material over time 
• Retrieval- the process of getting the information out of memory storage 

Recall VS Recognition 

Recall- you must retrieve the information from your memory 
Recognition- you must identify the target from possible targets 

Flashbulb memory- a clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or event. 

TYPES OF MEMORY 
**Sensory
- the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system 
- stores just for an instant, and most gets unprocessed 

**Short term
- memory that holds a few items briefly 
- seven digits (+- 2) 
- the information will be stored into long term or forgotten 

**Long term
- the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system 



            #encoding: getting the information in our heads 

Automatic processing- unconscious encoding of incidental information. 
• you encode space, time and word meaning without effort 
• things become automatic with practice 

Effort-full processing- encoding that requires attention and conscious effort 
• reversal is the most common effortful processing technique 
• through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic 

THINGS TO REMEMBER ABOUT ENCODING 

1. The next in-line effect: we seldom remember what the person has just said or done if we are next 
2. Information minutes before sleep is seldom remembered; in the hour before sleep; well remembered. 
3. Taped info played while asleep is registered by ears but we do not remember it 
**working memory (modern day STM)- another way of describing the use of short term memory is called working memory 

** working memory has 3 parts- 
1. Audio 
2. Visual 
3. Integration of audio and visual (controls where your attention lies) 

SPACING EFFECT- 
• we encode better when we study or practice over time 
• DONT CRAM 

SERIAL POSITIONING EFFECT
• our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list 


SEMANTIC ENCODING 
• the encoding of meaning, like meaning of words 

ACOUSTIC ENCODING 
• the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words 

VISUAL ENCODING
• the encoding of picture images 

Tricks to encode- use mental pictures or mnemonic devices use imagery. Like my “peg word” system or... 

Chunking- 
• organizing items into familiar, manageable units 
• often occurs automatically 

States of Consciousness (unit3)

WHAT IS CONSCIOUSNESSES?

Conscious is our awareness of ourselves and our surroundings. 

Daydreams (there is a difference between daydreaming and fantasies): 

- we daydream to help prepare us for future events. 

- they can help us with our social development 

- can substitute for impulsive behaviors 

BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS

- Annual cycle; seasonal variations (bears hibernation, seasonal affective disorder) 

24 hour cycle- menstrual 

28 day cycle- our circadian 

90 minute cycle- sleep cycle 

Circadian rhythm- our 24 hour biological clock. Our body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day. It is best to take a test or study during your circadian peaks. 

SLEEP STAGES:
- 5 stages of sleep
- Takes about 90-100 minutes to pass through the 5 stages
- Brain waves change according to the sleep stage you’re in
- First four stages= NREM sleep
- The fifth stage is called REM sleep

1. Stage 1- falling in and out of sleep. Takes up 1-5 minutes. Is approximately 2-5% of a normal night sleep. Eyes begun to roll slightly, consists mostly of theta waves (Hugh amplitude, low  frequency (slow)). Brief periods of alpha waves (similar to those present while awake). Hallucinating and feelings of falling. 
2. Stage 2- Baseline of sleep. 90 minute cycle. Occupies approximately 45-60% of sleep. 
3. Stage 3 and 4- “delta” sleep or slow wave. May last 15-30 minutes. It’s called slow sleep because brain activity slows down dramatically from theta Ruth un of stage 2. Amplitude of waves increases dramatically. Delta is the DEEPEST! Delta sleep is a sleep deprived persons brain craves the fist and foremost. In children, delta sleep can occupy 40% of all sleep time. Makes children “unawakable” or dead sleep. 
4. Stage 5- REM sleep. Rapid eye movement. Compose 20-25% of a normal nights sleep. Breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken. Vivid dreams can occur. From REM you go back to stage 2. 

REM- body is paralyzed. Genitals become aroused. Erections and clitoral enforcements. “Morning erections” are from the final REM stage. A typical 25 year old man has an erection during half of his sleep. A 65 year old- one quarter.

SLEEP DISORDERS
1. Insomnia: reoccurring problems in falling asleep or staying asleep. Not your once in a while. It is not defined by the number of hours you sleep every night.
2. Narcolepsy: uncontrollable sleep attacks. Lapses directly into REM sleep (times of stress and joy, rapid eye movement)
3. Sleep apnea: temporary cessation’s of breathing durning sleep and consequent momentary reawakening. (You stop breathing in the middle of sleep)
3. Night terrors: Hugh arousal and an appearance of being terrified. Occur in stage 4, not REM and are not often remembered.
4. Sleepwalking: affecting 10% of all humans at least once in their life. Sleep walking often occurs during deep non-REM sleep (stage 3 or 4) early in the night.

Dreams: sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping persons mind.
Manifest content- the remembered storyline of a dream
Latent content- underlying meaning of a dream.

DRUGS
•Drug tolerance- the diminishing effect with regular dose of the same dose.
                Psychological vs. physical dependence.
•Drugs are either agonists(neurons fire)  or antagonists (neurons don’t fire), reuptake inhibitors.
•If a drug is used often, a tolerance is created for the drug. You need more to feel the same effect. If you stop using a drug you can develop withdrawal symptoms.

Psychoactive drugs-

1. Depressants: slow down body function 
2. Stimulants: arouse body functions 
3. Hallucinogens: distort perceptions or evoke sensation without sensory input  

*Alcohol- slows down sympathetic nervous system. Districts memory processing. Reduces self awareness. Involved up to 60% of all drives. The worst drug from a macro perspective out there. 

*Depressants- tranquilizers. Taken to sleep (reduce REM sleep) taken with other drugs- you can get a synergistic effect.

*Opiates- has depressive and hallucinogenic qualities. Agonists for endorphins. Derived from a poppy plant. Morphine, heroine, methadone and codeine. All these drugs cross the placental barrier....teratogens. 

*Stimulants- speed up body processes. More powerful ones (like cocaine) give people feelings of invincibility. Ex. Amphetamines (speed), cocaine and crack 

*Hallucinogens- LSD (acid) hallucinogens cause distorted perceptions of the environment. Small amounts change how the brain functions. Brain cells fire at random, causing confusion and distorted perception of reality. 

*Marijuana; THC IS DIFFICULT TO CLASSIFY. Can amplify senses.